After summing up the "purely empirical" factors which influence human behavior, Dr. Jung commented on the extreme complexity of the science of psychology, due to the intricacy of the human psyche itself. In closing, he paid tribute to the mentality of William James, of whom he said: "It was his comprehensive mind which made me realize that the horizons of human psychology widen into the immeasurable."

Assertions and Commands

Rudolf Carnap, leader of the so-called "Vienna Circle" of logical positivists, outlined the three requirements of logical thinking as clarity, consistency and adequate evidence. In an address entitled simply "Logic," he pointed out that a statement which may appear to be an assertion is often only a command or a volitive expression.

Thus, he explained, a statement to the effect that any race, say the Hottentots, were superior to all other races and should deny them their rights, appears to be a definite assertion. But, according to Professor Carnap, if such a statement were transposed into the imperative form, "to reveal its exclusively volitional function," it would read as follows: "Members of the race of Hottentots! Unite and battle to dominate the other races! And you, members of other races! Submit to the yoke or fly from this land!"

Life Among the Esquimaux

"Functionalism" is a name which anthropologists immediately connect with Bronisiaw Malinowski, anthropologist of the University of London, the last speaker of this symposium, whose address was on the subject of "Culture as a Determinant of Behavior." The term represents a concept of a many-sided functioning as a unit, with all its customs and traditions interrelated. Malinowski observed just such a functional society during a very close study of the Trobriand Indians of Melanesia, and by giving bird's eye views of the culture of the Masal tribes of Africa, the Chagga, also of Africa, the Esquimaux, and the Trobrianders, illustrated the fact that scientific principles of anthropology may be universally applied. He urged the use of "scientific determinism" in the study of man.

More Control

The first section of the symposium on "Authority and the Individual" was given over to the subject "The State and Economic Enterprise." To this session Douglas Berry Copland, Professor of Commerce at the University of Melbourne, contributed some illuminating remarks on the subject of "The State and the Entrepreneur." Professor Copland spoke from wide experience, for he was one of a group of economists who were instrumental in bringing about a "State-engineered" recovery from the depression in Australia, and well knows the relations between the government and private enterprise. In spite of the fact that the state is often a "bad loser and a poor employer" when it undertakes the functions of the entrepreneur in industrial projects, he advocates an increase in the amount of control exercised by the state, but with still enough leeway left to private employers to exercise that imagination and foresight which has been so instrumental in the development of the great modern industrial nations, especially the United States. He pointed to the economic systems of Britain and Scandinavia as "the sound conception of the relation of the state to the entrepreneur."

Among the speakers at the symposium on "Authority and the Individual" was Corrado Gini, Professor of Statistics and Sociology at the University of Rome, and Visiting Lecturer at Harvard during the last half-year. After a discussion of the cyclical and permanent factors which influence the collective control of society over the individual, Professor Gini in his address on "Authority and the Individual during the Different Stages of Evolution of the Nations" expressed the hope that a consideration of them might aid in obtaining a better understanding between nations today.

No End Yet

He did not, like Plutarch, foresee the end of a civilization. Indeed, he expressed an unwillingness to prophesy, lacking the advantage of writing two hundred years after the event, as Plutarch did; he merely said that he hoped that a scientific consideration of the factors that influence races might help, at least, in obtaining a "mutual comprehension of the younger America and the Old Europe."

Classicism and romanticism, the Alpha and Omega of authority in literature and the arts, were discussed at the fourth section of the symposium. In one of the addresses Paul Hazard, Dr. es Lettres, Professor of Comparative Literature, College de France, discussed L'abbe Prevost, whose works may be taken as a peculiarly sensitive gauge of the literary changes of the 18th century, an age in which authority in literature was in a state of transition.

After a detailed discussion of Prevost as a Romanticist, and of the influences of the period which swayed both him and others, Professor Hazard reaffirmed the absolute necessity of a close study of these influences in gauging a man or a period, and of relying on original investigation rather than taking the opinions of others. "To seek; to continue to seek . . . Not to swear by the words of the masters; but to return to the facts, and to the criticism of the facts" was the rigid creed he pronounced for literary historians to follow, if they wish to discover the real truth of what lies in the past.

"Independence, Convergence and Borrowing in Institutions, Thought, and Art" was the title of the third non-scientific symposium here the discussion passed to the larger grounds of the origin and diffusion of cultures, approached from the viewpoints of many great branches of learning.

Primitive Cultures