The German universities have conquered a position of honor not confined to their fatherland; the eyes of the civilized world are upon them. Scholars speaking the most different languages crowd toward them, even from the farthest parts of the earth. Such a position would be easily lost by a false step, but would be difficult to regain.

Under these circumstances it is our duty to get a clear understanding of the reason for the previous prosperity of our universities; we must try to find what is the feature in their arrangements which we must seek to retain as a precious jewel, and where on the contrary, we may give way when changes are required. I consider myself by no means entitled to give a final opinion on this matter. The point of view of any single individual is restricted; representatives of other sciences will be able to contribute something. But I think that a final result can only be arrived at when each one becomes clear as to the state of things as seen from his point of view.

The European universities of the Middle Age had their origin as free private unions of their students, who came together under the influence of celebrated teachers, and themselves arranged their own affairs. In recognition of the public advantage of these unions they soon obtained from the state privileges and honorable rights, especially that of an independent jurisdiction, and the right of granting academic degrees. The students of that time were mostly men of mature years, who frequented the university more immediately for their own instruction, and without any direct practical object; but younger men soon began to be sent who, for the most part, were placed under the superintendence of the older members. The separate universities split again into closer economic unions, under the name of "Nations," "Bursaries," "Colleges," whose older members, the seniors, governed the common affairs of each such union, and also met together for regulating the common affairs of the university. In the courtyard of the University of Bologna are still to be seen the coats-of-arms, and lists of members and seniors, of many such nations in ancient times. The older graduated members were regarded as permanent life members of such unions, and they retained the right of voting, as is still the case in the College of Doctors in the University of Vienna, and in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, or was until recently.

Such a free confederation of independent men, in which teachers as well as taught were brought together by no other interest than that of love and science; some by the desire of discovering the treasure of mental culture which antiquity had bequeathed, others endeavoring to kindle in a new generation the ideal enthusiasm which had animated their lives. Such was the origin of universities, based, in the conception, and in the plan of their organization, upon the most perfect freedom. But we must not thin here of freedom of teaching in the modern sense. The majority was usually very intolerant of divergent opinions. Not unfrequently the adherents of the minority were compelled to quit the university in a body. This was not restricted to those cases in which the church intermeddled, and where political or metaphysical propositions were in question. Even the medical faculties-that of Paris, the most celebrated of all at the head-allowed no divergence from that which they regarded as the teaching of Hippocrates. Any one who used the medicines of the Arabians or who believed in the circulation of the blood was expelled.

The change, in the universities to their present constitution, was caused mainly by the fact that the state granted to them material help, but required, on the other hand, the right of co-operating in their management. The course of this development was different in different European countries, partly owing to divergent political conditions and partly to that of national character.

Until lately it might have been said that the least change has taken place in the old English universities, Oxford and Cambridge. Their great endowments, the political feeling of the English for the retention of existing rights, had excluded almost all change, even in directions in which such change was urgently required. Until of late both universities had in great measure retained their character as schools for the clergy, formerly of the Roman and now of the Anglican church, whose instruction laymen might also share in so far as it could serve the general education of the mind; they were subjected to such a control and mode of life as was formerly considered to be good for young priests. They lived, as they still live, in college, under the superintendence of a number of older graduate members (fellows) of the college; in other respects in the style and habits of the well-to-do classes in England.-[From the German of Prof. Helmholtz.